Language teaching has been around for many centuries, and over the centuries, it has changed. Various influences have affected language teaching. Reasons for learning language have been different in different periods. In some eras, languages were mainly taught for the purpose of reading. In others, it was taught mainly to people who needed to use it orally.
These differences influenced how language was taught in various periods. Also, theories about the nature of language and the nature of learning have changed. However, many of the current issues in language teaching have been considered off and on throughout history.
ANCIENT TIMES
The history of the consideration of foreign language teaching goes back at least to the ancient Greeks. They were interested in what they could learn about the mind and the will through language learning. The Romans were probably the first to study a foreign language formally. They studied Greek, taught by Greek tutors and slaves. Their approach was less philosophical and more practical than that of the Greeks.
Europe in Early Modern Times
In Europe before the 16th century, much of the language teaching involved teaching Latin to priests. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, French was a lingua franca for speaking to foreigners. Members of the court spoke French, of course, but it was also a necessary language for travelers, traders, and soldiers.
“The analysis of the grammar and rhetoric of Classical Latin became the model language teaching between the 17th and 19th centuries, a time when thought about language teaching crystalized in Europe. Emphasis was on learning grammar rules and vocabulary by rote, translations, and practice in writing sample sentences. The sentences that were translated or written by the students were examples of grammatical points and usually had little relationship to the real world. This method came to be known as the grammar-translation method” (Kenji Kitao, S. Kathleen Kitao, 21)
The 19th and Early to Mid-20th Century
“In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.” (wikipedia, para.1)
Theories of Language Learning & Language Teaching
BEHAVIOURISM
“Behaviourism, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling — can and should be regarded as behaviors.” (Skinner, 1984, 547-587).
“Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.”
“One of the most famous of these scientists was Ivan Pavlov. His experiments showed that if he rang a bell before giving food to the dogs he was studying, when the dogs heard the bell, they would salivate, even before the food was presented to them. This is called a conditioned response. Pavlov believed that this indicated that this is how animals learned, even in the wild. Pavlov and other studying in fields of animal behavior (including John Watson and B.F. Skinner) came to believe that animal behavior was formed by a series of rewards or punishments. Skinner, in particular, promoted the idea that human behavior could be described using the same model.
In applying his principles to language, Skinner theorized that parents or other caretakers hear a child say something that sounds like a word in their language, they reward the child with praise and attention. The child repeats words and combinations of words that are praised and thus learns language.”
(Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
“In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind using quantitative, positivist and scientific methods, that describes mental functions as information processing models.” (wikipedia, para. 1).
“The cognitive revolution in psychology was a response to behaviorism, which was the predominant school in experimental psychology at the time. This school was heavily influenced by Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and other physiologists. They proposed that psychology could only become an objective science were it based on observable behavior in test subjects. Because mental events are not publicly observable, Behaviorist psychologists avoided description of mental processes or the mind in their literature.” (wikipedia, para.1).
The Mid- to Late-20th Century
In the years following World War II, great changes took place, some of which would eventually influence language teaching and learning. Language diversity greatly increased, so that there were more languages to learn. Expansion of schooling meant that language
learning was no longer the prerogative of the elite but something that was necessary for a widening range of people. More opportunities for international travel and business and international social and cultural exchanges increased the need for language learning.
As a result, renewed attempts were made in the 1950s and 1960s to
1) use new technology (e.g., tape recorders, radios, TV, and computers) effectively in language teaching,
2) explore new educational patterns (e.g., bilingual education, individualized instruction, and immersion programs), and
3) establish methodological innovations (e.g., the audio-lingual method). However, the hoped-for increase in the effectiveness of language education did not materialize, and some of the theoretical underpinnings of the developments were called into question.
“Beginning in the mid-1960s, there has been a variety of theoretical challenges to the audio-lingual method. Linguist Noam Chomsky challenged the behaviorist model of language learning. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar, according to which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again.” (Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
For example, a sentence is changed from an affirmative to a negative sentence by adding not and the auxiliary verb to, i.e., "I go to New York every week" would be changed to "I do not go to New York every week." With a fairly limited number of these transformations, according to Chomsky, language users can form an unlimited number of sentences.
Other theorists have also proposed ideas that have influenced language teaching. Stephen Krashen, for example, studied the way that children learn language and applied it to adult language learning.
“He proposed the Input Hypothesis, which states that language is acquired by using comprehensible input (the language that one hears in the environment) which is slightly beyond the learner's present proficiency.” (Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
Learners use the comprehensible input to deduce rules. Krashen's views on language teaching have given rise to a number of changes in language teaching, including a de-emphasis on the teaching of grammatical rules and a greater emphasis on trying to teach language to adults in the way that children learn language. While Krashen's theories are not universally accepted, they have had an influence.
REFERENCES
Skinner, B.F. (16 Apr 1984). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Behavioral and brain sciences(Print) 7 (4): 547–581.
Chomsky, Noam (1959). “A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior”.
Kitao, Kathleen S.; Kitao,Kenji(1999). “Fundamentals of English Language Teaching”.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
Tuesday, January 5, 2010
The History of Language Teaching
Language teaching has been around for many centuries, and over the centuries, it has changed. Various influences have affected language teaching. Reasons for learning language have been different in different periods. In some eras, languages were mainly taught for the purpose of reading. In others, it was taught mainly to people who needed to use it orally.
These differences influenced how language was taught in various periods. Also, theories about the nature of language and the nature of learning have changed. However, many of the current issues in language teaching have been considered off and on throughout history.
ANCIENT TIMES
The history of the consideration of foreign language teaching goes back at least to the ancient Greeks. They were interested in what they could learn about the mind and the will through language learning. The Romans were probably the first to study a foreign language formally. They studied Greek, taught by Greek tutors and slaves. Their approach was less philosophical and more practical than that of the Greeks.
Europe in Early Modern Times
In Europe before the 16th century, much of the language teaching involved teaching Latin to priests. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, French was a lingua franca for speaking to foreigners. Members of the court spoke French, of course, but it was also a necessary language for travelers, traders, and soldiers.
“The analysis of the grammar and rhetoric of Classical Latin became the model language teaching between the 17th and 19th centuries, a time when thought about language teaching crystalized in Europe. Emphasis was on learning grammar rules and vocabulary by rote, translations, and practice in writing sample sentences. The sentences that were translated or written by the students were examples of grammatical points and usually had little relationship to the real world. This method came to be known as the grammar-translation method” (Kenji Kitao, S. Kathleen Kitao, 21)
The 19th and Early to Mid-20th Century
“In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.” (wikipedia, para.1)
Theories of Language Learning & Language Teaching
BEHAVIOURISM
“Behaviourism, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling — can and should be regarded as behaviors.” (Skinner, 1984, 547-587).
“Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.”
“One of the most famous of these scientists was Ivan Pavlov. His experiments showed that if he rang a bell before giving food to the dogs he was studying, when the dogs heard the bell, they would salivate, even before the food was presented to them. This is called a conditioned response. Pavlov believed that this indicated that this is how animals learned, even in the wild. Pavlov and other studying in fields of animal behavior (including John Watson and B.F. Skinner) came to believe that animal behavior was formed by a series of rewards or punishments. Skinner, in particular, promoted the idea that human behavior could be described using the same model.
In applying his principles to language, Skinner theorized that parents or other caretakers hear a child say something that sounds like a word in their language, they reward the child with praise and attention. The child repeats words and combinations of words that are praised and thus learns language.”
(Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
“In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind using quantitative, positivist and scientific methods, that describes mental functions as information processing models.” (wikipedia, para. 1).
“The cognitive revolution in psychology was a response to behaviorism, which was the predominant school in experimental psychology at the time. This school was heavily influenced by Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and other physiologists. They proposed that psychology could only become an objective science were it based on observable behavior in test subjects. Because mental events are not publicly observable, Behaviorist psychologists avoided description of mental processes or the mind in their literature.” (wikipedia, para.1).
The Mid- to Late-20th Century
In the years following World War II, great changes took place, some of which would eventually influence language teaching and learning. Language diversity greatly increased, so that there were more languages to learn. Expansion of schooling meant that language
learning was no longer the prerogative of the elite but something that was necessary for a widening range of people. More opportunities for international travel and business and international social and cultural exchanges increased the need for language learning.
As a result, renewed attempts were made in the 1950s and 1960s to
1) use new technology (e.g., tape recorders, radios, TV, and computers) effectively in language teaching,
2) explore new educational patterns (e.g., bilingual education, individualized instruction, and immersion programs), and
3) establish methodological innovations (e.g., the audio-lingual method). However, the hoped-for increase in the effectiveness of language education did not materialize, and some of the theoretical underpinnings of the developments were called into question.
“Beginning in the mid-1960s, there has been a variety of theoretical challenges to the audio-lingual method. Linguist Noam Chomsky challenged the behaviorist model of language learning. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar, according to which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again.” (Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
For example, a sentence is changed from an affirmative to a negative sentence by adding not and the auxiliary verb to, i.e., "I go to New York every week" would be changed to "I do not go to New York every week." With a fairly limited number of these transformations, according to Chomsky, language users can form an unlimited number of sentences.
Other theorists have also proposed ideas that have influenced language teaching. Stephen Krashen, for example, studied the way that children learn language and applied it to adult language learning.
“He proposed the Input Hypothesis, which states that language is acquired by using comprehensible input (the language that one hears in the environment) which is slightly beyond the learner's present proficiency.” (Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
Learners use the comprehensible input to deduce rules. Krashen's views on language teaching have given rise to a number of changes in language teaching, including a de-emphasis on the teaching of grammatical rules and a greater emphasis on trying to teach language to adults in the way that children learn language. While Krashen's theories are not universally accepted, they have had an influence.
REFERENCES
Skinner, B.F. (16 Apr 1984). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Behavioral and brain sciences(Print) 7 (4): 547–581.
Chomsky, Noam (1959). “A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior”.
Kitao, Kathleen S.; Kitao,Kenji(1999). “Fundamentals of English Language Teaching”.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
These differences influenced how language was taught in various periods. Also, theories about the nature of language and the nature of learning have changed. However, many of the current issues in language teaching have been considered off and on throughout history.
ANCIENT TIMES
The history of the consideration of foreign language teaching goes back at least to the ancient Greeks. They were interested in what they could learn about the mind and the will through language learning. The Romans were probably the first to study a foreign language formally. They studied Greek, taught by Greek tutors and slaves. Their approach was less philosophical and more practical than that of the Greeks.
Europe in Early Modern Times
In Europe before the 16th century, much of the language teaching involved teaching Latin to priests. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, French was a lingua franca for speaking to foreigners. Members of the court spoke French, of course, but it was also a necessary language for travelers, traders, and soldiers.
“The analysis of the grammar and rhetoric of Classical Latin became the model language teaching between the 17th and 19th centuries, a time when thought about language teaching crystalized in Europe. Emphasis was on learning grammar rules and vocabulary by rote, translations, and practice in writing sample sentences. The sentences that were translated or written by the students were examples of grammatical points and usually had little relationship to the real world. This method came to be known as the grammar-translation method” (Kenji Kitao, S. Kathleen Kitao, 21)
The 19th and Early to Mid-20th Century
“In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.” (wikipedia, para.1)
Theories of Language Learning & Language Teaching
BEHAVIOURISM
“Behaviourism, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling — can and should be regarded as behaviors.” (Skinner, 1984, 547-587).
“Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.”
“One of the most famous of these scientists was Ivan Pavlov. His experiments showed that if he rang a bell before giving food to the dogs he was studying, when the dogs heard the bell, they would salivate, even before the food was presented to them. This is called a conditioned response. Pavlov believed that this indicated that this is how animals learned, even in the wild. Pavlov and other studying in fields of animal behavior (including John Watson and B.F. Skinner) came to believe that animal behavior was formed by a series of rewards or punishments. Skinner, in particular, promoted the idea that human behavior could be described using the same model.
In applying his principles to language, Skinner theorized that parents or other caretakers hear a child say something that sounds like a word in their language, they reward the child with praise and attention. The child repeats words and combinations of words that are praised and thus learns language.”
(Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
“In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind using quantitative, positivist and scientific methods, that describes mental functions as information processing models.” (wikipedia, para. 1).
“The cognitive revolution in psychology was a response to behaviorism, which was the predominant school in experimental psychology at the time. This school was heavily influenced by Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and other physiologists. They proposed that psychology could only become an objective science were it based on observable behavior in test subjects. Because mental events are not publicly observable, Behaviorist psychologists avoided description of mental processes or the mind in their literature.” (wikipedia, para.1).
The Mid- to Late-20th Century
In the years following World War II, great changes took place, some of which would eventually influence language teaching and learning. Language diversity greatly increased, so that there were more languages to learn. Expansion of schooling meant that language
learning was no longer the prerogative of the elite but something that was necessary for a widening range of people. More opportunities for international travel and business and international social and cultural exchanges increased the need for language learning.
As a result, renewed attempts were made in the 1950s and 1960s to
1) use new technology (e.g., tape recorders, radios, TV, and computers) effectively in language teaching,
2) explore new educational patterns (e.g., bilingual education, individualized instruction, and immersion programs), and
3) establish methodological innovations (e.g., the audio-lingual method). However, the hoped-for increase in the effectiveness of language education did not materialize, and some of the theoretical underpinnings of the developments were called into question.
“Beginning in the mid-1960s, there has been a variety of theoretical challenges to the audio-lingual method. Linguist Noam Chomsky challenged the behaviorist model of language learning. He proposed a theory called Transformational Generative Grammar, according to which learners do not acquire an endless list of rules but limited set of transformations which can be used over and over again.” (Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
For example, a sentence is changed from an affirmative to a negative sentence by adding not and the auxiliary verb to, i.e., "I go to New York every week" would be changed to "I do not go to New York every week." With a fairly limited number of these transformations, according to Chomsky, language users can form an unlimited number of sentences.
Other theorists have also proposed ideas that have influenced language teaching. Stephen Krashen, for example, studied the way that children learn language and applied it to adult language learning.
“He proposed the Input Hypothesis, which states that language is acquired by using comprehensible input (the language that one hears in the environment) which is slightly beyond the learner's present proficiency.” (Kenji Kitao,1999; S. Kathleen Kitao,1999).
Learners use the comprehensible input to deduce rules. Krashen's views on language teaching have given rise to a number of changes in language teaching, including a de-emphasis on the teaching of grammatical rules and a greater emphasis on trying to teach language to adults in the way that children learn language. While Krashen's theories are not universally accepted, they have had an influence.
REFERENCES
Skinner, B.F. (16 Apr 1984). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Behavioral and brain sciences(Print) 7 (4): 547–581.
Chomsky, Noam (1959). “A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior”.
Kitao, Kathleen S.; Kitao,Kenji(1999). “Fundamentals of English Language Teaching”.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
* It takes its principles from the “Counseling Learning Approach” developed by Charles A. Curran.
* It was created especially for Adult Learners who might fear to appear foolish ; so the teacher becomes a Language Counsellor he understands them and leads them to
overcome their fears .
LEARNING THEORY
According to Curran, there are six elements necessary for non-defensive learning.These are
collected under the acronym SARDAR:
Security
Attention
Retention
Discrimination
Agression
Reflection
SECURITY
Student should feel secure to enter into a ,succesful learning experience. Classroom atmosphere, students’ relations with each other, teacher’s attitude to students all affects students’ feeling of security.
ATTENTION: Attention is the learner’s involment in learning.
RETENTION
If the whole person is involved in the learning process, what is retained is internalised and becomes a part of learner’s ‘new persona’ in foreign language.The material should neither be too old nor be too new or conversely too familiar. Retention will best take place somewhere in between novelty and familiarity.
DISCRIMINATION
Students should disciriminate the similarities and the differnces among target language forms by listening to themselves and the teacher carefully. They should also listen to discriminate if what they say is similar or different from what their teacher says.
E.g Similarity & Differnce
Present continuous : She is studying French.
Past continuos : Tom was cooking
AGGRESSION
Aggression is to show what has been learnt for ‘self-assertion’ like a child who tries to show what he has learnt. The child tries to prove the things he has learnt.
REFLECTION
Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn. The teacher reads the text for three times and students relax and listen for self reflection. Students also listen to their own voice from tape for reflection.
LANGUAGE THEORY
Languge is for communication. Language is what you learn and share with others. Students should trust the learning process, the teacher and the others.
TEACHER’S ROLE
Teacher’s role is that of a counsellor. Teacher tries to remove threatening factors in the classroom. The teacher stands behind the students. This fosters interactions among the sutedents rather than from student to teacher.
INTERACTIONS
Student-student, teacher-student interactions occur in the classroom. In addition, groupp work, and pair work tasks are carried out by students . Usually the teacher physically removes himself/herself from the circle in order to increase student-student interactions.
CULTURE: Knowing the target language is important to be successful. Social lifestyle, literature, customs, habits should be learnt.
Role of L1
Students’ security is initially enhanced by using their native language. The purpose of using native language is to provide a bridge from familiar to unfamiliar. Directions in the class and students’ feelings are conducted in the native language. In later steps more and more L2 is used.
Grammar Teaching: Large chunks are analysaed means of equivalents in L1. It can be explicit when necessary.
Vocabulary Teaching: Literal native language equivalents are given to the target language in order to teach their meanings.
Error Correction: The error is treated in non-threating way. The teacher repeats the correct form without calling further attention to the error and the owner of the error.
Goals and Objectives
Students should learn how to use the target language communicatively. Students should learn about their own learning to take an increasing responsibility about it. Non-defensive learning is the result when the teacher and the students treat each other as a whole person.
Evaluation: There is no particular mode of evaluation. Students are asked to write a paragraph or they can be given an oral interview.
Tecniques
A) transcription
The eacher writes the L1 equivalent of the text in the target language on the board a poster sized paper in order to be able to refer later. Students copy them in their notebooks later.
B)Reflection on experience
Students tell about their feelings about language learning experience.
C) reflective listening
Students relax and listen to their own voices speaking the target language on the tape. The
teacher may also read the transcript while students are listening.
D)Small group task
Students learn from each other. Also small groups can let students to know each other well.
E) Human computer
1- teacher stands behind students
2- teacher repeats , doesn’t correct
3- interaction among students
4- students feel in control / responsible
Materials
A textbook is considered not necessary.Materials may be developed by the teacher as
the course develops. Materials depend on students’ needs.
Syllabus
CLL doesn’t use a conversation of language syllabus, which sets out in advance the grammar, vocabulary and the other language items to be taught and the order in which they will be covered. Syllabus is developed in terms of students’communication needs.
ADVANTAGES
} a warm, sympathetic and trusting relationship between the teacher and learners
} high motivation
} Active participation
} Student freedom with the role of L1
} Removal of the feeling of alienation and inadequacy
DISADVANTAGES
} The counselor-teacher can become too non-directive.
} The complex nature of translation
} Inductive learning in the early stage of language learning is not effective and less successful.
SOURCES
} http://members.fortunecity.com/nadabs/communitylearn.html
} www.ingilizceogretmenligi.com
} Texts prepared by Y.Doç.Dr. Filiz Yalçın Tılfarlıoğlu
ERHAN ŞEN -- TEVFİK GÜLTER -- MUSTAFA KILIÇ -- SERDAR DARĞIN
Monday, December 14, 2009
TOTAL PHSICAL RESPONSE
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
Total Physical Response (TPR), which is an ESL methodology developed by James J. Asher, has been in use for nearly thirty years. The method became popular in the 1970's and attracted the attention or allegiance of some teachers. While other methods have come and gone, Total Physical Response (TPR) is still a valuable tool when teaching newly-arrived ESL students. Despite the wealth of materials available to us, nothing is more useful with a newcomer than this very direct and visual instruction.
The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or additional language, language is internalized through a process of codebreaking similar to first language development and that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement. TPR is primarily intended for ESL teacher, although the method is used in teaching other languages as well.
How can I use TPR in class?
In the classroom the teacher plays the role of parent. She starts by saying a word ('jump') or a phrase ('look at the board') and demonstrating an action. The teacher then says the command and the students all do the action. After repeating a few times it is possible to extend this by asking the students to repeat the word as they do the action. When they feel confident with the word or phrase you can then ask the students to direct each other or the whole class.
It is more effective if the students are standing in a circle around the teacher and you can even encourage them to walk around as they do the action.
Teaching Steps in TPR
Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.
When should I use TPR?
TPR can be used to teach and practise many things.
Vocabulary connected with actions (smile, chop, headache, wriggle)
Tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (Every morning I clean my teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast)
Classroom language (Open your books)
Imperatives/Instructions (Stand up, close you eyes)
Story-telling
PRINCIPLES
The goals of the teacher are s/he reduces the stress of the students.The teacher encourages the learners. Teacher makes the students enjoy their experiences in learning second language.
The role of the teacher is s/he is the director and guide of all the students’ behaviour. S/he becomes a movie director who guides actors - the students.
According to Total Physical Response, teacher’s attitude towards errors is s/he must believe that it a inevitable real that the students make mistakes during the education.Their making mistakes is completely normal and it show they have learned.It is wrong that they are forced not to make wrong.The teacher must be tolerant to the mistakes and s/he must correct only the important mistakes.While correcting,she must not be hurtfull.
In TPR, there is not a test evaluation.Teachers have an opinion about the student’s level observing their behaviours, answers and attitudes.(process-based evaluation).If there is a need to an evaluation, then teacher gives them some comment and wants them to do.
In T.P.R word and grammer are the most important skills. They are taught with imperatives. Imperatives can consist of one word or sentences.The reason of using the imperatives in T.P.R is that they are often used in mother language learning,speaking language is over the writing language.Firstly speaking,then reading.
One of the TPR’s aims fort he feelings of students is to decrease the stress of the students during the language learning.So when the student feels ready for speaking himself/herself, he/she must speak. The teacher must wait him/her. Otherwise it can cause anxiety and fear. During this time,they can make mistake. The most important thing is that they must be corrected properly.In order to decrease the stress of the students,the language learning must be done amusingly. For example, the teacher can use humorous imperative sentences. It increases self confidence of the students.
The teacher is in interaction with the whole group and individual students. The instructor, like a caring parent, is sensitive to whether the students are receiving the messages. The body movements of each student will signal immediately how comfortable they feel. If there is hesitation, for instance, the skillful instructor will slow down and continue to work with a routine in a compassionate manner until each student feels confident enough to act alone in response to the instructor's directions.
TECHNIQUES
Using Commands to Direct Behavior : This is the main technique of TPR. Teacher should prepare the commands before the lesson. During the application she should change the order of commands to prevent memorization
Role Reversal : Students can give commands to their classmates and teacher.
Action Sequence : Many commands can be given consecutively which are related to each other.
ADVANTAGES
It is fun and easy. Students will enjoy getting up out of their chairs and moving around.
Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. However, some other more complex applications might.
"TPR is aptitude-free." according to Asher. It is inclusive working well with a mixed ability class.
It is good for kinæsthetic learners who need to be active in the class.
It is a good tool for building vocabulary.
It is memorable. Actions help strengthen the connections in the brain.
Class size is not a problem. It works well with mixed-ability classes. It involves both left and right-brained learning.
"TPR seems to work effectively for children and adults. There is no age barrier." according to Asher.
It won’t take a lot of time to get ready
DISADVANTAGES
While it can be used at higher levels TPR is most useful for beginners. It is also at the higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher.
Students are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way.
It is easy to overuse TPR. "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger adaptation." Asher writes, "No matter how exciting and productive the innovation, people will tire of it."
The teacher may find that it is limited in terms of language scope. Certain target languages may not be suited to this method.
It can be a challenge for shy students.
Work-cited
www.wikipedia .net
www. encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com
www.ingilizceogretmenligi.com
www.tpr-world.com
www.coe.sdsu.edu
www.ingilizceogretmenleri.com
www.everythingesl.net
www.britishcouncil.org
Total Physical Response (TPR), which is an ESL methodology developed by James J. Asher, has been in use for nearly thirty years. The method became popular in the 1970's and attracted the attention or allegiance of some teachers. While other methods have come and gone, Total Physical Response (TPR) is still a valuable tool when teaching newly-arrived ESL students. Despite the wealth of materials available to us, nothing is more useful with a newcomer than this very direct and visual instruction.
The method relies on the assumption that when learning a second or additional language, language is internalized through a process of codebreaking similar to first language development and that the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement. TPR is primarily intended for ESL teacher, although the method is used in teaching other languages as well.
How can I use TPR in class?
In the classroom the teacher plays the role of parent. She starts by saying a word ('jump') or a phrase ('look at the board') and demonstrating an action. The teacher then says the command and the students all do the action. After repeating a few times it is possible to extend this by asking the students to repeat the word as they do the action. When they feel confident with the word or phrase you can then ask the students to direct each other or the whole class.
It is more effective if the students are standing in a circle around the teacher and you can even encourage them to walk around as they do the action.
Teaching Steps in TPR
Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.
When should I use TPR?
TPR can be used to teach and practise many things.
Vocabulary connected with actions (smile, chop, headache, wriggle)
Tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (Every morning I clean my teeth, I make my bed, I eat breakfast)
Classroom language (Open your books)
Imperatives/Instructions (Stand up, close you eyes)
Story-telling
PRINCIPLES
The goals of the teacher are s/he reduces the stress of the students.The teacher encourages the learners. Teacher makes the students enjoy their experiences in learning second language.
The role of the teacher is s/he is the director and guide of all the students’ behaviour. S/he becomes a movie director who guides actors - the students.
According to Total Physical Response, teacher’s attitude towards errors is s/he must believe that it a inevitable real that the students make mistakes during the education.Their making mistakes is completely normal and it show they have learned.It is wrong that they are forced not to make wrong.The teacher must be tolerant to the mistakes and s/he must correct only the important mistakes.While correcting,she must not be hurtfull.
In TPR, there is not a test evaluation.Teachers have an opinion about the student’s level observing their behaviours, answers and attitudes.(process-based evaluation).If there is a need to an evaluation, then teacher gives them some comment and wants them to do.
In T.P.R word and grammer are the most important skills. They are taught with imperatives. Imperatives can consist of one word or sentences.The reason of using the imperatives in T.P.R is that they are often used in mother language learning,speaking language is over the writing language.Firstly speaking,then reading.
One of the TPR’s aims fort he feelings of students is to decrease the stress of the students during the language learning.So when the student feels ready for speaking himself/herself, he/she must speak. The teacher must wait him/her. Otherwise it can cause anxiety and fear. During this time,they can make mistake. The most important thing is that they must be corrected properly.In order to decrease the stress of the students,the language learning must be done amusingly. For example, the teacher can use humorous imperative sentences. It increases self confidence of the students.
The teacher is in interaction with the whole group and individual students. The instructor, like a caring parent, is sensitive to whether the students are receiving the messages. The body movements of each student will signal immediately how comfortable they feel. If there is hesitation, for instance, the skillful instructor will slow down and continue to work with a routine in a compassionate manner until each student feels confident enough to act alone in response to the instructor's directions.
TECHNIQUES
Using Commands to Direct Behavior : This is the main technique of TPR. Teacher should prepare the commands before the lesson. During the application she should change the order of commands to prevent memorization
Role Reversal : Students can give commands to their classmates and teacher.
Action Sequence : Many commands can be given consecutively which are related to each other.
ADVANTAGES
It is fun and easy. Students will enjoy getting up out of their chairs and moving around.
Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. However, some other more complex applications might.
"TPR is aptitude-free." according to Asher. It is inclusive working well with a mixed ability class.
It is good for kinæsthetic learners who need to be active in the class.
It is a good tool for building vocabulary.
It is memorable. Actions help strengthen the connections in the brain.
Class size is not a problem. It works well with mixed-ability classes. It involves both left and right-brained learning.
"TPR seems to work effectively for children and adults. There is no age barrier." according to Asher.
It won’t take a lot of time to get ready
DISADVANTAGES
While it can be used at higher levels TPR is most useful for beginners. It is also at the higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher.
Students are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way.
It is easy to overuse TPR. "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger adaptation." Asher writes, "No matter how exciting and productive the innovation, people will tire of it."
The teacher may find that it is limited in terms of language scope. Certain target languages may not be suited to this method.
It can be a challenge for shy students.
Work-cited
www.wikipedia .net
www. encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com
www.ingilizceogretmenligi.com
www.tpr-world.com
www.coe.sdsu.edu
www.ingilizceogretmenleri.com
www.everythingesl.net
www.britishcouncil.org
Tuesday, December 8, 2009
Suggestopedia
TECHNIQUES IN SUGEESTOPEDIA
Classroom Set-up: A classroom doesnot look like a normal classroom. Teacher should create a classroom environment which is bright and cheerful. It should be a quiet room which is full of light and fresh air. The chairs are arranged in a semi-circle. There are plants in the corners and posters on the walls.
Peripheral Learning: We perceive much more in our environment than that to which we conciously attend. Ss can absorb information effortlessly when it is perceived as a part of environment, rather than the material ‘ to be attended’. It is claimed that, putting posters containing grammatical information about the target language on the classroom walls, will enable ss to absorb the necessary facts effortlessly. The posters are changed from time to time to provide grammatical information that is appropriate to what the ss are studying. A student can learn from what is present in the environment, even if his attention isnot directed to it.
Positive Suggestion: Teacher is the crucial point. It is teacher’s responsibility to create the suggestive factors in a learning situation so that s/he can help ss break down the barriers to learning that they bring with them.
Teachers can do this through direct and indirect means;
conscious (direct) ‘you will be successful’
subconcious (indirect) ‘to want is to be able to’ (the teacher can bring a text titled with encouraging statements to activate the subconscious part of the students.)
Choose a new identity: Ss choose a target language name and a new occupation. They create imaginary biographies about their fictional selves. They wear hats. From now on, it is the character who talks and makes the mistake not the student himself. Role
Play: Ss take a new identity and perform a role using the target language. Ss are asked to pretend temporarily that they are someone else and to perform in the target language as if they were that person. And they introduce themselves.They feel less inhibited since their performance is really that of a different person.That gives impression that learning is pleasent and easy and it creates a relaxed group atmosphere.
Primary Activation: Ss reread the target language dialog out loud as individual or in groups.
Creative Adaptation
: The focus is not on the liguistic message, just communicative intent is important. There are some activities such as singing, dancing, dramatizations, games(ball game),question-answer exercise
Visualization: Ss are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events. Teacher invites ss to take a mental trip which activates imagination. It helps learning.
Music:ıt activates the subconcious part. Intonation with the music is an essential element for being influential on both planes; conscious and unconscious.
NO HOMEWORK!!!!!!!!!!!!
Students just read the dialogs at night before they go to bed and in the morning when they wake up.
Optimal learning
They are evaluated through in-class performance. Formal tests create a threat to the relaxed atmosphere which is considered essential for accelerated learning.
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND THE DISADVANTAGES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA?
ADVANTAGES
Cheerful learning environment, thinking highly of students’ feeling,humanistic arouse students’ interests and potential to memorize
Activate ‘paraconscious’ part
The emphasis of interaction
The treatments to students’ mistakes
Speaking communicatively Vocabulary
Autonomous learner
No anxiety, no fear
Long term memory Motivation
Success
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE SS AND THE TEACHER?
TEACHER
Authority
Guide
Prompter
Encourage
Desuggesting the psychological barriers
Creativity
Be confident and trustable
Create a cheerful atmosphere
Freeman, Diane Larsen. ‘ Desuggestopedia’. Techniques and Principles in Language Learning. Eds. Russell N. Campbell and
br.con.org/professionals.htm www.wikipedia.net www.nuveform.com
DISADVANTAGES
Absence of tests
Different characteristics between students
Diffuciulty in applying in each situation
Economic factors
No homework
Music??
STUDENT
Respect and trust
Security
Relaxed
Confident
Spontaneous
Less inhibited
Following instructions easily
PREPARED BY PELİN DOĞAN
SİBEL YÜZÜK
RAHİME ÇOKAY
Classroom Set-up: A classroom doesnot look like a normal classroom. Teacher should create a classroom environment which is bright and cheerful. It should be a quiet room which is full of light and fresh air. The chairs are arranged in a semi-circle. There are plants in the corners and posters on the walls.
Peripheral Learning: We perceive much more in our environment than that to which we conciously attend. Ss can absorb information effortlessly when it is perceived as a part of environment, rather than the material ‘ to be attended’. It is claimed that, putting posters containing grammatical information about the target language on the classroom walls, will enable ss to absorb the necessary facts effortlessly. The posters are changed from time to time to provide grammatical information that is appropriate to what the ss are studying. A student can learn from what is present in the environment, even if his attention isnot directed to it.
Positive Suggestion: Teacher is the crucial point. It is teacher’s responsibility to create the suggestive factors in a learning situation so that s/he can help ss break down the barriers to learning that they bring with them.
Teachers can do this through direct and indirect means;
conscious (direct) ‘you will be successful’
subconcious (indirect) ‘to want is to be able to’ (the teacher can bring a text titled with encouraging statements to activate the subconscious part of the students.)
Choose a new identity: Ss choose a target language name and a new occupation. They create imaginary biographies about their fictional selves. They wear hats. From now on, it is the character who talks and makes the mistake not the student himself. Role
Play: Ss take a new identity and perform a role using the target language. Ss are asked to pretend temporarily that they are someone else and to perform in the target language as if they were that person. And they introduce themselves.They feel less inhibited since their performance is really that of a different person.That gives impression that learning is pleasent and easy and it creates a relaxed group atmosphere.
Primary Activation: Ss reread the target language dialog out loud as individual or in groups.
Creative Adaptation
: The focus is not on the liguistic message, just communicative intent is important. There are some activities such as singing, dancing, dramatizations, games(ball game),question-answer exercise
Visualization: Ss are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events. Teacher invites ss to take a mental trip which activates imagination. It helps learning.
Music:ıt activates the subconcious part. Intonation with the music is an essential element for being influential on both planes; conscious and unconscious.
NO HOMEWORK!!!!!!!!!!!!
Students just read the dialogs at night before they go to bed and in the morning when they wake up.
Optimal learning
They are evaluated through in-class performance. Formal tests create a threat to the relaxed atmosphere which is considered essential for accelerated learning.
WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES AND THE DISADVANTAGES OF SUGGESTOPEDIA?
ADVANTAGES
Cheerful learning environment, thinking highly of students’ feeling,humanistic arouse students’ interests and potential to memorize
Activate ‘paraconscious’ part
The emphasis of interaction
The treatments to students’ mistakes
Speaking communicatively Vocabulary
Autonomous learner
No anxiety, no fear
Long term memory Motivation
Success
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE SS AND THE TEACHER?
TEACHER
Authority
Guide
Prompter
Encourage
Desuggesting the psychological barriers
Creativity
Be confident and trustable
Create a cheerful atmosphere
Freeman, Diane Larsen. ‘ Desuggestopedia’. Techniques and Principles in Language Learning. Eds. Russell N. Campbell and
br.con.org/professionals.htm www.wikipedia.net www.nuveform.com
DISADVANTAGES
Absence of tests
Different characteristics between students
Diffuciulty in applying in each situation
Economic factors
No homework
Music??
STUDENT
Respect and trust
Security
Relaxed
Confident
Spontaneous
Less inhibited
Following instructions easily
PREPARED BY PELİN DOĞAN
SİBEL YÜZÜK
RAHİME ÇOKAY
Monday, December 7, 2009
The Silent Way
The silent way (SW), a method of language teaching, originated in the early 1970s and introduced by Caleb Gattegno who is well known for the use of coloured sticks called cuisenaire rods and for his approach to the teaching of initial reading in which sounds are taught by colours.(1)
Principles
1-“Teaching should be subordinated to learning.”(Caleb Gattegno)
2-“The teacher works with the students while the students work on the language.”(Caleb Gattegno)
3-The silence of teacher is important and as much as possible s/he ecourage the students to produce language.
4-The learners are responsible what they learn.
5-Only the necessary help should be given by the teacher. Silence helps learners to think about what is to be learned next.
6-To reach a successful learning responsibility of the learner for language acqusition with using silent awareness and then active trial is required.
7-“Inner criteria” is acquired by the learners.
8-As a key learning device in the way of learning errors are seen natural part of the process and important.
9-Becoming independent, autonomous and responsible is expected from students.
10-The students show the teacher where they have problems with understanding. In the teacher’s point of view progress is more important than perfection. Effective learning needs time. The teacher has to take into account the students’ individual differences.
11-The students begin to learn a foreign language by the pronunciation of different sounds. They practise the target language structure without repetition.
12-It is necessary for the students to be able to form their own inner criteria for correctness.
13-The students should help each other and themselves during the learning process. The teacher keeps silent and that encourages group cooperation.
14-The teacher should create such a relaxing atmosphere that leads the students to take risk and facilitate learning. The teacher is only a neutral observer so he doesn’t interfere in the students’ learning process.
15-The students should be able to express themselves in the target language and it is a necessity for the students to develop their independence from the teacher and their own inner criteria for correctness.16-The teacher should give them only what they absolutely need to promote their learning. Students’ feedback is very important for the teacher. The students develop their own responsibility. The learning process continues even while we are sleeping.
17-When the students are not brave enough to take part in the activities, the teacher should find ways to encourage them. In the end of the lesson the students have the opportunity to express their feelings and opinions about the lesson through feedback.
Techniques
1-Sound-Colour Chart > The teacher refers students to a colour-coded wall chart depicting individual sounds in the target language - students use this to point out and build words with correct pronunciation.
2-Teacher's Silence > Teacher is generally silent, only giving help when it is absolutely necessary.
3-Peer Correction > Students encouraged to help each other in a cooperative and not competitive spirit.
4-Rods > Rods are used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language. They can symbolize whatever words are being taught and be manipulated directly or abstractly to create sentence.
5-Self-correction Gestures >Teacher uses hands to indicate that something is incorrect or needs changing - eg. using fingers as words then touching the finger/word that is in need of correction.
6-Word Chart > Words are depicted on charts, the sounds in each word corresponding in colour to the Sound-Colour Chart.
7-Fidel Chart > A chart that is colour-coded according to the sound-colour chart but includes the various English spellings so that they can be directly related to actual sound.
8-Structured Feedback > Students are invited to make observations about the day's lesson and what they have learned.
Advantages
1-Independent Learners are aware that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can use the knowledge of their own language to open up some things in a new language.
2-Autonomous Learners choose proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations.
3-Responsible Learners know that they have free will to choose among any set of linguistic choices, the ability to choose intelligently and carefully is said to be evidence of responsibility.
4-The students are free while expressing themselves and developing their own criteria for correctness.
5-There is a positive and relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.
Disadvantages
1-The students consider with the syntax and neglect cultural input through the language.
2-The teacher’s not speaking leads the students absence of the correct pronunciation and the students are lack of accurate usage of the target language.
3-It is not economic for both the teachers and the students because they need lots of materials such as the sound-colour chart, etc.
4-There are no examples given by the teacher and he doesn’t correct the students’ errors.
5-It is not applicable in large groups.
6-The learning is far from the authentic language but it is artificial.
7-It is teacher-based because he gives the instructions.
References:
· http://www.englishraven.com/method_silent.html
· http://uneeducationpourdemain.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=194&Itemid=53&lang=en
· http://pagesperso-orange.fr/une.education.pour.demain/articlesrrr/sw/pate.htm
· http://www.scribd.com/doc/21291391/The-Silent-Way
Serap Akbıyık >Tuğrul Kardaş > Alexandra Stefan > Ali Sucu
Principles
1-“Teaching should be subordinated to learning.”(Caleb Gattegno)
2-“The teacher works with the students while the students work on the language.”(Caleb Gattegno)
3-The silence of teacher is important and as much as possible s/he ecourage the students to produce language.
4-The learners are responsible what they learn.
5-Only the necessary help should be given by the teacher. Silence helps learners to think about what is to be learned next.
6-To reach a successful learning responsibility of the learner for language acqusition with using silent awareness and then active trial is required.
7-“Inner criteria” is acquired by the learners.
8-As a key learning device in the way of learning errors are seen natural part of the process and important.
9-Becoming independent, autonomous and responsible is expected from students.
10-The students show the teacher where they have problems with understanding. In the teacher’s point of view progress is more important than perfection. Effective learning needs time. The teacher has to take into account the students’ individual differences.
11-The students begin to learn a foreign language by the pronunciation of different sounds. They practise the target language structure without repetition.
12-It is necessary for the students to be able to form their own inner criteria for correctness.
13-The students should help each other and themselves during the learning process. The teacher keeps silent and that encourages group cooperation.
14-The teacher should create such a relaxing atmosphere that leads the students to take risk and facilitate learning. The teacher is only a neutral observer so he doesn’t interfere in the students’ learning process.
15-The students should be able to express themselves in the target language and it is a necessity for the students to develop their independence from the teacher and their own inner criteria for correctness.16-The teacher should give them only what they absolutely need to promote their learning. Students’ feedback is very important for the teacher. The students develop their own responsibility. The learning process continues even while we are sleeping.
17-When the students are not brave enough to take part in the activities, the teacher should find ways to encourage them. In the end of the lesson the students have the opportunity to express their feelings and opinions about the lesson through feedback.
Techniques
1-Sound-Colour Chart > The teacher refers students to a colour-coded wall chart depicting individual sounds in the target language - students use this to point out and build words with correct pronunciation.
2-Teacher's Silence > Teacher is generally silent, only giving help when it is absolutely necessary.
3-Peer Correction > Students encouraged to help each other in a cooperative and not competitive spirit.
4-Rods > Rods are used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language. They can symbolize whatever words are being taught and be manipulated directly or abstractly to create sentence.
5-Self-correction Gestures >Teacher uses hands to indicate that something is incorrect or needs changing - eg. using fingers as words then touching the finger/word that is in need of correction.
6-Word Chart > Words are depicted on charts, the sounds in each word corresponding in colour to the Sound-Colour Chart.
7-Fidel Chart > A chart that is colour-coded according to the sound-colour chart but includes the various English spellings so that they can be directly related to actual sound.
8-Structured Feedback > Students are invited to make observations about the day's lesson and what they have learned.
Advantages
1-Independent Learners are aware that they must depend on their own resources and realize that they can use the knowledge of their own language to open up some things in a new language.
2-Autonomous Learners choose proper expressions in a given set of circumstances and situations.
3-Responsible Learners know that they have free will to choose among any set of linguistic choices, the ability to choose intelligently and carefully is said to be evidence of responsibility.
4-The students are free while expressing themselves and developing their own criteria for correctness.
5-There is a positive and relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.
Disadvantages
1-The students consider with the syntax and neglect cultural input through the language.
2-The teacher’s not speaking leads the students absence of the correct pronunciation and the students are lack of accurate usage of the target language.
3-It is not economic for both the teachers and the students because they need lots of materials such as the sound-colour chart, etc.
4-There are no examples given by the teacher and he doesn’t correct the students’ errors.
5-It is not applicable in large groups.
6-The learning is far from the authentic language but it is artificial.
7-It is teacher-based because he gives the instructions.
References:
· http://www.englishraven.com/method_silent.html
· http://uneeducationpourdemain.org/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=194&Itemid=53&lang=en
· http://pagesperso-orange.fr/une.education.pour.demain/articlesrrr/sw/pate.htm
· http://www.scribd.com/doc/21291391/The-Silent-Way
Serap Akbıyık >Tuğrul Kardaş > Alexandra Stefan > Ali Sucu
DYNAMICS OF METHODOLOGICAL CHANGES
LANGUAGE ORIGINS
Language is a system of symbols, with several levels of organization, at least phonetics (the sounds), syntax (the grammar), and semantics (the meanings) By age four, most humans have developed an ability to communicate through oral language. By age six or seven, most humans can comprehend, as well as express, written thoughts.
The linguist Charles Hockett provided some features,which distinguish human speech from other communication systems.The features are :
1.Displacement:the ability to talk about the things remote in space and time;
2.Productivity:the capacity to say things never before said or heard which are yet understandable and acceptable by others;
3.Traditional transmission:by which linguistic conventions are carried on through teaching and learning;
4.Pattern duality:the enormous store of words is represented by small combinations of a still smaller stock distinguishable sounds,themselves meaningless(tack,cat,act are sementically distinct) (Edward,1994:32)
LANGUGE AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES
A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. All languages change with time. A comparison of Chaucer's English, Shakespere's English and Modern English shows how a language can change over several hundred years.
If two groups of people speaking the same language are separated, in time their languages will change along different paths. One of the best examples in Western history occurred after the Roman Empire collapsed in the 4th Century AD. Latin was the language of that empire. All the Latin speakers in different parts of Europe (Italian Peninsula, Gaul, Iberian Peninsula, Carpathia) became isolated from each other. Their languages evolved along independent rotes to give us the modern languages of Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian.
WHAT IS MULTILINGUALISM?
Multilingualism is the ability to speak more than one language, which is a widespread global phenomenon.
‘ During the last 100 years, there have been two great changes. In the first place, many more people have learnt an internationally useful foreign language, in Europe and in many other parts of the world. In the second place, there was a choice among several languages a century ago, but now the foreign language (or the first foreign language) that is learnt is almost always English.’
‘ As a matter of fact, language contacts are becoming frequent everywhere.For example, The United States now has a significant Spanish-speaking minority that did not exist thirty years ago. Britain has had considerable immigration from many countries, and contacts with the European Union are more extensive than earlier.’
THE CONSEQUENCES OF BABEL
*Languages of Wider Communication
‘After Latin, several other languages have achieved lingua franca status.French,for example, was a powerful link language throughout Europe and beyond by the 18th century.It had particular influence at the higher levels of society (John Edwards,Multilingualism,1994:40).’
Today there is no doubt that English is the most important global variety and thus has the greatest status as a world lingua franca.Chinese is spoken by more people than any other language.
*Pidgins and Creoles
‘A pidgin language is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common, in situations such as trade, or where both groups speak languages different to the language of the country in which they reside (but there is no common language between the groups).’
‘A 'pidgin' language is not the native language of any speech community, but is instead learned as a second language.A 'Pidgin' language may be built from words, sounds, or body language from multiple other languages / cultures.’
Pidgin languages usually have low prestige with respect to other languages.There are many pidgins in use.Their vocabulary and grammar are restricted, yet allow simple communication and pidgins shows linguistic creativity.
‘Pidgins become ‘creole’ languages when a generation whose parents speak pidgin to each other teach it to their children as their first language. Creoles can then replace the existing mix of languages to become the native language of a community (John Edwards,Multilingualism,1994:42).’
‘For example; ‘Krio’ in Sierra Leone and ‘Tok Pisin’ in Papua New Guinea.However, not all pidgins become creole languages; a pidgin may die out before this phase would occur.’
*Constructed Languages
‘The third category of lingua franca is the artificial or constructed language.A planned or constructed language is a language whose phonology, grammar, or vocabulary have been consciously devised by an individual or group, instead of having evolved naturally(Edwards,1994:44).’
*Translation
‘A second broad approach to bridging language gaps is translation.It is obvious that using a translator or interpreter has practical benefits;it is perhaps less obvious that psychological disadvantages may present themselves.The translator is one whose linguistic competence gives entry to two language communities and there may be apprehension (Edwards,1994:48).’
MULTICULTURALISM
Multiculturalism means being more than one culture surviving somehow together in a community.The number of multicultural countries has been rising especially after the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.However; there are several reasons behind it such as poverty,lack of job, diseases… Of course; when the others come, their culture comes so.That is; a multicultural society turns out like this.
In such a society there are many advantages and disadvantages.For example; one can learn a variety of different habits,another language(s),or some unusual customs.Yet, you can corrupt your own nation’s traditions by mixing or trying to combine one to another which is the most dangerous one i think.Up to now,such societies have made regulations to reshape or melt down the others.On the other hand; when we have look on the effects of multiculturalism in our country, it can be regarded enormous as for language.Especially the teenagers’ language is really hard to understand.They try to mix the words up and create something different.The authorities should be very very careful about this,neither to despise anyone nor to punish.They should co-operate with the public itself about the precautions.
Another important topic is the sexual discrimination.From ancient times women have been seen inferior to men in a lot of societies.They were seen as workers: cleaning,washing the dishes,daily works… As a result they couldn’t contribute anything to the society.Only men tried to give something but especialy in the field of language there has been big gaps when we take a look.In developedcountries,this situation is at the lowest level and because of this we call those as developed.You can not isolate women from the society because if everyone lives together,eveyone needs to take action together.If you do so,you will be eternally stay at the same level.Progressively in every part of the world this becomes more aware.
In conclusion,the criteria must be to take action contemplating every little detail since the topic is very crucial.
Zehra DEMİR, Fatma ÇALIŞKAN, Emrah TÜRKKAYA
Language is a system of symbols, with several levels of organization, at least phonetics (the sounds), syntax (the grammar), and semantics (the meanings) By age four, most humans have developed an ability to communicate through oral language. By age six or seven, most humans can comprehend, as well as express, written thoughts.
The linguist Charles Hockett provided some features,which distinguish human speech from other communication systems.The features are :
1.Displacement:the ability to talk about the things remote in space and time;
2.Productivity:the capacity to say things never before said or heard which are yet understandable and acceptable by others;
3.Traditional transmission:by which linguistic conventions are carried on through teaching and learning;
4.Pattern duality:the enormous store of words is represented by small combinations of a still smaller stock distinguishable sounds,themselves meaningless(tack,cat,act are sementically distinct) (Edward,1994:32)
LANGUGE AND LANGUAGE FAMILIES
A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. All languages change with time. A comparison of Chaucer's English, Shakespere's English and Modern English shows how a language can change over several hundred years.
If two groups of people speaking the same language are separated, in time their languages will change along different paths. One of the best examples in Western history occurred after the Roman Empire collapsed in the 4th Century AD. Latin was the language of that empire. All the Latin speakers in different parts of Europe (Italian Peninsula, Gaul, Iberian Peninsula, Carpathia) became isolated from each other. Their languages evolved along independent rotes to give us the modern languages of Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian.
WHAT IS MULTILINGUALISM?
Multilingualism is the ability to speak more than one language, which is a widespread global phenomenon.
‘ During the last 100 years, there have been two great changes. In the first place, many more people have learnt an internationally useful foreign language, in Europe and in many other parts of the world. In the second place, there was a choice among several languages a century ago, but now the foreign language (or the first foreign language) that is learnt is almost always English.’
‘ As a matter of fact, language contacts are becoming frequent everywhere.For example, The United States now has a significant Spanish-speaking minority that did not exist thirty years ago. Britain has had considerable immigration from many countries, and contacts with the European Union are more extensive than earlier.’
THE CONSEQUENCES OF BABEL
*Languages of Wider Communication
‘After Latin, several other languages have achieved lingua franca status.French,for example, was a powerful link language throughout Europe and beyond by the 18th century.It had particular influence at the higher levels of society (John Edwards,Multilingualism,1994:40).’
Today there is no doubt that English is the most important global variety and thus has the greatest status as a world lingua franca.Chinese is spoken by more people than any other language.
*Pidgins and Creoles
‘A pidgin language is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common, in situations such as trade, or where both groups speak languages different to the language of the country in which they reside (but there is no common language between the groups).’
‘A 'pidgin' language is not the native language of any speech community, but is instead learned as a second language.A 'Pidgin' language may be built from words, sounds, or body language from multiple other languages / cultures.’
Pidgin languages usually have low prestige with respect to other languages.There are many pidgins in use.Their vocabulary and grammar are restricted, yet allow simple communication and pidgins shows linguistic creativity.
‘Pidgins become ‘creole’ languages when a generation whose parents speak pidgin to each other teach it to their children as their first language. Creoles can then replace the existing mix of languages to become the native language of a community (John Edwards,Multilingualism,1994:42).’
‘For example; ‘Krio’ in Sierra Leone and ‘Tok Pisin’ in Papua New Guinea.However, not all pidgins become creole languages; a pidgin may die out before this phase would occur.’
*Constructed Languages
‘The third category of lingua franca is the artificial or constructed language.A planned or constructed language is a language whose phonology, grammar, or vocabulary have been consciously devised by an individual or group, instead of having evolved naturally(Edwards,1994:44).’
*Translation
‘A second broad approach to bridging language gaps is translation.It is obvious that using a translator or interpreter has practical benefits;it is perhaps less obvious that psychological disadvantages may present themselves.The translator is one whose linguistic competence gives entry to two language communities and there may be apprehension (Edwards,1994:48).’
MULTICULTURALISM
Multiculturalism means being more than one culture surviving somehow together in a community.The number of multicultural countries has been rising especially after the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.However; there are several reasons behind it such as poverty,lack of job, diseases… Of course; when the others come, their culture comes so.That is; a multicultural society turns out like this.
In such a society there are many advantages and disadvantages.For example; one can learn a variety of different habits,another language(s),or some unusual customs.Yet, you can corrupt your own nation’s traditions by mixing or trying to combine one to another which is the most dangerous one i think.Up to now,such societies have made regulations to reshape or melt down the others.On the other hand; when we have look on the effects of multiculturalism in our country, it can be regarded enormous as for language.Especially the teenagers’ language is really hard to understand.They try to mix the words up and create something different.The authorities should be very very careful about this,neither to despise anyone nor to punish.They should co-operate with the public itself about the precautions.
Another important topic is the sexual discrimination.From ancient times women have been seen inferior to men in a lot of societies.They were seen as workers: cleaning,washing the dishes,daily works… As a result they couldn’t contribute anything to the society.Only men tried to give something but especialy in the field of language there has been big gaps when we take a look.In developedcountries,this situation is at the lowest level and because of this we call those as developed.You can not isolate women from the society because if everyone lives together,eveyone needs to take action together.If you do so,you will be eternally stay at the same level.Progressively in every part of the world this becomes more aware.
In conclusion,the criteria must be to take action contemplating every little detail since the topic is very crucial.
Zehra DEMİR, Fatma ÇALIŞKAN, Emrah TÜRKKAYA
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